Offentlige Styringsparadigmer: Konkurrence og Sameksistens (Copenhagen: DJØF Publishers). Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). ‘Resilience and Robustness in Policy Design’. Emerson, K., T. Nabatchi, and S. Balogh. Georgi, Neratzia Julia (2008) Book chapter. As Kingdon (1984) points out, policy success often rests on a good deal of luck and the ability to exploit the timing of different events and favourable opportunities in the environment. Denmark has one of the most decentralized welfare states in the world. (p.228) A green heart shared by a ring of surrounding urban areas is found in the Randstad region in the Netherlands. American Journal of Sociology 98(6), 1259–1319. ), Ældre Byplanlæggere 1954–2000 (Copenhagen: Byplanhistorisk Udvalg), pp. Train stations were located so that local residents would have no more than fifteen minutes’ walk to the nearest S-train. According to Rose (1991), they engage in lesson drawing, which involves: (1) searching in time and space for promising alternative policy programmes; (2) abstracting the underlying cause-and-effect model in what is observed; (3) creating a lesson or new programme for action; and (4) estimating the consequences of adopting the lesson. Bache, I. and M. Flinders (eds). Since 1999 the state has numerous Transit Village designations, which are in different stages of development:[36], Pleasantville (1999), Morristown (1999), Rutherford (1999), South Amboy (1999), South Orange (1999), Riverside (2001), Rahway (2002), Metuchen (2003), Belmar (2003), Bloomfield (2003), Bound Brook (2003), Collingswood (2003), Cranford (2003) Matawan (2003), New Brunswick (2005), Journal Square/Jersey City (2005), Netcong (2005), Midtown Elizabeth (2007), Burlington City (2007), Orange (2009), Montclair (2010), Somerville (2010), Linden (2010), West Windsor (2012), Dunellen (2012), Plainfield (2014), Park Ridge (2015), and Irvington (2015).[37][38]. Drawing on recently developed theories of governance (Jessop 2002; Kooiman 2003; Sørensen and Torfing 2009), we can say that the involved government agencies played the role of a meta-governor that framed, supported, financed, and endorsed a networked governance process that took place outside the formal institutions of government, although it included a broad range of government actors. People only needed to take a quick look at the map of the S-train system to be reminded of the Finger Plan that governed the rapid urbanization in Copenhagen. The city hopes to push people to use more public transport. [53], When executed with equity in mind, however, TOD has the potential to benefit low- and moderate-income (LMI) communities: it can link workers to employment centers, create construction and maintenance jobs, and has the potential to encourage investment in areas that have suffered neglect and economic depression. 1998. Finally yet importantly, socio-economic turbulence, shifting political priorities, and bureaucratic resistance may undermine stated planning objectives and preferred strategies for how to attain them. Political support was so strong that the Finger Plan soon became the official planning doctrine of public authorities in the Copenhagen metropolitan area, effectively turning it into a top-down planning strategy. Schoon, M. L. 2008. With the municipal amalgamation reform in 2007, regional planning responsibility was split between the local municipalities and the state. New apartment and office tower developments along the future Sydney Metro stations are being planned as integrated developments with the stations themselves. The fingers would expand along a new subway system (the so-called S-train system) that would be supplemented by roads running along the borders of the five fingers. We have already seen how the fingers constitute modules with sub-modular joints that can be extended, cut off, and multiplied in a highly flexible manner in response to changing demands. (ed.). ‘The Copenhagen Finger Plan: Keeping a Green Space Structure by a Simple Planning Metaphor’. Milton railway station will undergo a multimillion-dollar revamp as part of the development of The Milton Residences to promote and encourage residents to embrace rail travel. [50], The term transit-oriented development, as a US-born concept, is rarely used in Europe, although many of the measures advocated in US transit-oriented development are also stressed in Europe. In K. Andersen (ed. Kingdon, J. W. 1984. housing and industry located side by side in congested cityscapes with limited access to green areas. When the S-train lines were first built and the new zoning law had banned housing in the green wedges, the development of new housing and service functions along the fingers almost took care of itself. [34][35], New Jersey has become a national leader in promoting transit oriented development. As such, modularity helps to keep future options open, which is a key aspect of robustness (Padgett and Ansell 1993). Århundrede (Copenhagen: DJØF Publishers). Planning with Complexity (London: Routledge). Hajer, M. A. and H. Wagenaar (eds). Many European cities have long been built around transit systems and there has thus often been little or no need to differentiate this type of development with a special term as has been the case in the US. The analysis of the factors driving the successful formulation and implementation of the Finger Plan pays attention to the question of timing, the professional process management, the political coalition building, the strength of metaphors, and the ability to adapt to changing conditions. The source of innovation in Curitiba has been a unique form of participatory city planning that emphasizes public education, discussion and agreement.[14]. ‘How America’s Cities are Growing: The Big Picture’. Today, it provides a well-known reference point in international planning debates (Hall 1989; Ravesteyn et al. If the Danish planning regime had been weak and had allowed the development of urban sprawl, the creation of these two transport corridors would have been impossible or would have required numerous expropriations. pressure on the green wedges was minimal due to the use of conservation and zoning laws that provided legal support for the Finger Plan. A half mile (800 m) corresponds to the distance someone can walk in 10 minutes at 3 mph (4.8 km/h) and is a common estimate for the distance people will walk to get to a rail station. The communists secured the mayoralty for planning and development, and the new mayor immediately called for a general urban development plan and supported the idea of developing a larger regional urbanization plan (Theisen 2001). Mexico City has battled pollution for years. Urban and Regional Planning (London: Unwin Hyman). The Finger Plan built on the assumption that growth in business and housing was inevitable and impossible to stop (Regional Planning Office 1947). The second principle is ‘green wedges’, which establishes that the urban fingers should be separated by green areas in which no building or construction is permitted. Sørensen, E. and J. Torfing. In the process they lost some of their independent and autonomous status, although the Danish Urban Planning Lab continues to exist and still orchestrates important planning discussions. Stronger planning regimes in Northern Europe have made it possible to prevent urban sprawl and incoherent urbanization through the development and implementation of broad framework plans for current and future land use. (p.231) In J. Lundström, M. Wiberg, S. Hrastinski, M. Edenius, and P. Ågerfalk (eds), Managing Open Innovation Technologies (Berlin: Springer), pp. Perspectives on Public Management and Governance 1(1), 43–57. ‘A Public Management for all Seasons?’ Public Administration 69(1), 3–19. Copenhagen, collaborative governance, urban planning, Finger Plan, land use, A condensed and thematically structured version of this same case study can be found at the Public Impact Observatory.